Paul, apostle of Jesus Christ, concluding His letter through the hand of Tertius with greetings, commendation, warning, and doxology.
Text Size
Romans 16
Gospel Partnership, Holy Greeting, False-Teacher Warning, and Doxology to the God Who Establishes
The gospel that justifies sinners also creates a holy network of servants, co-workers, and churches that must receive faithful laborers, guard against divisive deception, and give glory to the only wise God who establishes His people through Jesus Christ.
Reading a chapter
What this page is: Each chapter page shows the big idea, the argument flow, key original-language terms, doctrine connections, and passage units, all in one place.
How to use it: Start with the Overview tab to get the chapter's main point. Then move to Passages to study individual units, or Language to trace key terms.
Going deeper: The Doctrines and Motifs tabs show how this chapter connects to the broader biblical story.
Chapter Summary
The gospel that justifies sinners also creates a holy network of servants, co-workers, and churches that must receive faithful laborers, guard against divisive deception, and give glory to the only wise God who establishes His people through Jesus Christ.
Overview
Romans 16 argues through personal greetings, warning, and doxology that the gospel is embodied in real fellowship and guarded by doctrinal vigilance. Faithful workers are to be received and honored. Divisive deceivers are to be avoided. The church's obedience must be joined to wisdom in good and innocence in evil. The God of peace will crush Satan, and the God who reveals and establishes through the gospel deserves eternal glory through Jesus Christ.
Context
The Roman believers, including multiple house-church networks, Jewish and Gentile Christians, men and women active in gospel labor, and saints needing encouragement, unity, vigilance, and establishment in the gospel.
Romans 16 likely reflects Paul's network of ministry relationships across the eastern Mediterranean. Phoebe is commended from Cenchreae, Priscilla and Aquila are greeted in Rome, and the greetings reveal the relational infrastructure of early Christian mission and house-church life.
The gospel that justifies sinners also creates a holy network of servants, co-workers, and churches that must receive faithful laborers, guard against divisive deception, and give glory to the only wise God who establishes His people through Jesus Christ.
Paul, apostle of Jesus Christ, concluding His letter through the hand of Tertius with greetings, commendation, warning, and doxology.
The Roman believers, including multiple house-church networks, Jewish and Gentile Christians, men and women active in gospel labor, and saints needing encouragement, unity, vigilance, and establishment in the gospel.
Romans 16 likely reflects Paul's network of ministry relationships across the eastern Mediterranean. Phoebe is commended from Cenchreae, Priscilla and Aquila are greeted in Rome, and the greetings reveal the relational infrastructure of early Christian mission and house-church life.
Social Pressure
- The Roman church lived amid urban diversity, household structures, imperial society, philosophical and religious competition, and potential internal threats from divisive teachers. Paul calls for warm reception of faithful servants and separation from divisive deceivers.
Commendation letters, patronage, household assemblies, co-worker networks, public greetings, holy kisses, and named benefactors were socially meaningful practices in the Roman world. Paul reorders these practices around Christ, the saints, gospel service, and holy fellowship.
Romans 16 concludes the theological argument of Romans by showing the gospel embodied in actual people and churches, guarded against false teaching, and crowned with the revelation of God's mystery now made known to bring about the obedience of faith among all nations.
Chapter Movement
Paul moves from commending Phoebe, to greeting many believers and house-church networks, to commanding holy mutual greeting, to warning against divisive deceivers, to promising Satan's crushing by the God of peace, to relaying greetings from His companions, and finally to doxology celebrating God's power to establish believers through the gospel of Jesus Christ now revealed for the obedience of the Gentiles.
Discourse Insight
Theological exposition and fulfillment
Romans 16 clarifies that the gospel is not only a doctrine to be confessed but a divine power by which God establishes His people, forms holy fellowship, guards the church from deception, defeats Satan, reveals the long-hidden mystery, and brings the nations to the obedience of faith through Jesus Christ. The gospel ends in glory to the only wise God.
Structural Flow
The chapter opens with a formal commendation, urging the church to receive and assist Phoebe as a worthy servant and benefactor.
Priscilla and Aquila are honored as co-workers who risked their lives and hosted a church in their house.
Epenetus and Mary are greeted as beloved and hardworking saints.
Andronicus and Junia are honored as Paul’s fellow Jews and fellow prisoners, notable among the apostles and in Christ before Paul.
Paul greets a cluster of beloved believers, approved servants, and women who worked hard in the Lord.
Paul greets Rufus, His mother, and several household or house-church clusters.
Paul commands holy mutual greeting and sends greetings from all the churches of Christ.
The church must identify and avoid those who cause divisions and obstacles contrary to apostolic teaching.
Divisive teachers serve their own appetites and deceive the naive with smooth talk and flattery.
Paul rejoices in the Romans' known obedience and wants them wise in good and innocent in evil.
Paul assures them that the God of peace will soon crush Satan under their feet and blesses them with Christ's grace.
Paul's co-workers and host network send greetings, including Timothy, Tertius, Gaius, Erastus, and Quartus.
The letter ends by glorifying the only wise God who establishes believers through the revealed gospel mystery in Jesus Christ.
Chapter Outline
- 16:1-2: Paul commends Phoebe and calls the Roman church to welcome and assist her as a servant and benefactor.
- 16:3-16: Paul names and honors many saints, showing the church as a network of beloved co-workers, households, laborers, and holy fellowship.
- 16:17-18: Paul warns the church to identify and avoid those who divide the church and oppose apostolic teaching through smooth deception.
- 16:19-20: Paul rejoices in the Romans' obedience, calls them to wise innocence, and promises that the God of peace will crush Satan under their feet.
- 16:21-24: Paul's companions and hosts send greetings, showing the communal nature of gospel ministry.
- 16:25-27: Paul ends by praising the only wise God who establishes believers through the gospel of Jesus Christ, the revealed mystery made known for the obedience of faith among all nations.
Theological Argument
Romans 16 argues through personal greetings, warning, and doxology that the gospel is embodied in real fellowship and guarded by doctrinal vigilance. Faithful workers are to be received and honored. Divisive deceivers are to be avoided. The church's obedience must be joined to wisdom in good and innocence in evil. The God of peace will crush Satan, and the God who reveals and establishes through the gospel deserves eternal glory through Jesus Christ.
The chapter moves from commendation to greeting, from greeting to warning, from warning to promise, from promise to ministry-team greetings, and from personal relationships to cosmic doxology.
- 1.Phoebe is commended as a servant of the church in Cenchreae.
- 2.The Roman believers must receive her in the Lord in a manner worthy of the saints.
- 3.They must assist her in whatever matter she needs.
- 4.Phoebe has been a benefactor of many, including Paul.
- 5.Paul greets Priscilla and Aquila as co-workers in Christ Jesus.
- 6.They risked their lives for Paul.
- 7.Gentile churches are grateful for their service.
- 8.Paul greets the church that meets in their house.
- 9.Paul greets beloved believers, first converts, hard workers, relatives, fellow prisoners, approved servants, households, and brothers and sisters.
- 10.The church is to greet one another with a holy kiss.
- 11.All the churches of Christ send greetings.
- 12.The believers must watch out for those who cause divisions and obstacles contrary to the teaching they learned.
- 13.They must keep away from such people.
- 14.Divisive deceivers do not serve the Lord Christ but their own appetites.
- 15.They deceive naive people through smooth talk and flattery.
- 16.The Romans' obedience is known to everyone.
- 17.Paul rejoices over them but wants them wise about good and innocent about evil.
- 18.The God of peace will soon crush Satan under their feet.
- 19.The grace of the Lord Jesus is invoked upon them.
- 20.Paul's companions send greetings, showing the communal network of gospel ministry.
- 21.God is able to establish believers according to Paul's gospel and the proclamation of Jesus Christ.
- 22.The gospel reveals a mystery hidden for long ages but now disclosed.
- 23.The mystery is made known through prophetic writings by the command of the eternal God.
- 24.The goal is that all Gentiles might come to the obedience of faith.
- 25.The only wise God receives glory forever through Jesus Christ.
Theological Focus
- Commendation
- Receiving saints
- Servanthood
- Benefaction
- Co-workers in Christ
- House churches
- Gospel labor
- Holy greeting
- Churches of Christ
- Divisions
- Obstacles
- Apostolic teaching
- Avoidance of false teachers
- Lord Christ
- Self-serving appetites
- Smooth talk and flattery
- Obedience
- Wisdom in good
- Innocence in evil
- God of peace
- Satan crushed
- Grace of the Lord Jesus
- Gospel establishment
- Proclamation of Jesus Christ
- Mystery revealed
- Prophetic writings
- Eternal God
- Obedience of faith
- Only wise God
- Glory through Jesus Christ
- Faithful Reception of Gospel Servants
- Women and Men in Gospel Labor
- House-Church Fellowship
- Sacrificial Co-Working
- Beloved Personal Fellowship
- Holy Affection
- Doctrinal Vigilance
- Separation from Divisive Deceivers
- False Service
- Smooth Deception
- Obedience Known to All
- Wise in Good, Innocent in Evil
- God of Peace Crushing Satan
- God Establishes Through the Gospel
- Mystery Revealed
- Obedience of Faith Among the Nations
- Glory to the Only Wise God
- Church Fellowship
- Hospitality
- Doctrinal Discernment
- False Teaching
- Wisdom and Innocence
- Spiritual Warfare
- Grace of Christ
- Gospel Establishment
- Scripture
- Mission to the Nations
- Divine Wisdom
- Doxology
Theological Themes
The church must receive and help faithful servants in the Lord in a manner worthy of the saints.
Romans 16 names women and men as servants, co-workers, benefactors, and laborers in the Lord.
The greetings reveal the church gathered in homes and connected through households and relational networks.
Priscilla and Aquila model costly gospel partnership, risking their lives and serving many churches.
Paul's many personal greetings show that doctrinally rich ministry is also affectionate and relationally embodied.
The holy kiss expresses sanctified fellowship, not casual social sentiment.
The church must watch for those who cause divisions and obstacles contrary to apostolic teaching.
Christian love does not require platforming destructive teachers; Paul commands believers to keep away from them.
False teachers claim religious concern but actually serve their own appetites rather than the Lord Christ.
False teaching often advances through pleasing speech and flattery that deceives the unsuspecting.
Paul rejoices in the Romans' widely known obedience while still calling them to wisdom and innocence.
Believers must become skilled in goodness without becoming experienced in evil.
The God who gives peace will crush Satan under the feet of His people, echoing the ancient promise of victory.
The church's endurance amid deception and conflict depends on the grace of Christ.
God strengthens and establishes believers according to the gospel and proclamation of Jesus Christ.
The gospel reveals God's long-hidden mystery now disclosed through prophetic writings.
Romans ends where it began: the gospel aims at the obedience of faith among all Gentiles.
The final word of Romans is doxology: glory forever to the only wise God through Jesus Christ.
Covenant Significance
Romans 16 shows the covenant people as a translocal, multi-household, multiethnic, mutually serving fellowship established by the revealed gospel. The doxology gathers the letter's covenant logic: the mystery once hidden is now revealed through the prophetic writings by the command of the eternal God, so that all Gentiles might come to the obedience of faith. The crushing of Satan under the church's feet echoes the primal promise of victory and places the church's perseverance within God's long redemptive plan.
Old Testament Connections
- The saints receive faithful servants in the Lord as members of one holy people.
- House churches and households embody the covenant community in local spaces.
- Jewish and Gentile believers are joined in a single network of gospel labor.
- The churches of Christ share greetings across regions, showing translocal unity.
- Apostolic teaching functions as the doctrinal boundary of the covenant community.
- Divisions contrary to apostolic teaching threaten the church's unity and must be resisted.
- The promise that God will crush Satan under believers' feet recalls the seed-promise victory over the serpent.
- God establishes His people through the gospel of Jesus Christ.
- The mystery hidden for ages is now revealed in continuity with the prophetic writings.
- The eternal God's command sends the gospel to all Gentiles.
- The final aim is obedience of faith among the nations.
- All covenant fulfillment ends in glory to the only wise God through Jesus Christ.
- Genesis 3:15
- Genesis 12:1-3
- Psalm 67:1-7
- Isaiah 49:6
- Isaiah 52:15
- Isaiah 60:1-3
- Habakkuk 2:4
- Zechariah 3:1-2
Canonical Connections
Paul's promise that God will crush Satan under the church's feet echoes the first gospel promise of the serpent's defeat.
Romans ends with the gospel made known to all Gentiles, fulfilling the promise that all nations would be blessed.
The revealed gospel mystery aligns with prophetic expectation that God's salvation reaches the nations.
Romans begins and ends with the mission aim of obedience of faith among the nations.
Paul's final doxology resonates with His wider teaching that God's mystery is now revealed in Christ and the inclusion of the Gentiles.
The gospel is new in revelation clarity but rooted in the prophetic Scriptures.
The New Testament repeatedly warns churches against deceivers who distort doctrine and divide believers.
Paul's wisdom-innocence command aligns with Jesus' instruction to be wise and innocent amid danger.
God's power to establish believers appears throughout the New Testament as a promise of perseverance and gospel stability.
The final glory of the gospel is directed to God through Jesus Christ.
Cross References
Clarifies how the passage points to the gospel of Christ.
Clarifies how the passage points to the gospel of Christ.
Now our Lord Jesus Christ himself, and God our Father, who loved us and gave us eternal comfort and good hope through grace, comfort your hearts and establish you in every good work and word.
Clarifies how the passage points to the gospel of Christ.
Clarifies how the passage points to the gospel of Christ.
the mystery which has been hidden for ages and generations. But now it has been revealed to his saints, to whom God was pleased to make known what are the riches of the glory of this mystery among the Gentiles, which is Christ in you, the...
Clarifies how the passage points to the gospel of Christ.
Greet the brothers who are in Laodicea, and Nymphas, and the assembly that is in his house.
Clarifies how the passage points to the gospel of Christ.
how that by revelation the mystery was made known to me, as I wrote before in few words, by which, when you read, you can perceive my understanding in the mystery of Christ, which in other generations was not made known to the children of...
Clarifies how the passage points to the gospel of Christ.
I marvel that you are so quickly deserting him who called you in the grace of Christ to a different “good news”, but there isn’t another “good news.” Only there are some who trouble you and want to pervert the Good News of Christ. But even...
Clarifies how the passage points to the gospel of Christ.
For many walk, of whom I told you often, and now tell you even weeping, as the enemies of the cross of Christ, whose end is destruction, whose god is the belly, and whose glory is in their shame, who think about earthly things.
Clarifies how the passage points to the gospel of Christ.
Yes, I beg you also, true partner, help these women, for they labored with me in the Good News with Clement also, and the rest of my fellow workers, whose names are in the book of life.
Shows Old Testament grounding that frames or supports this passage.
He reveals the deep and secret things. He knows what is in the darkness, and the light dwells with him.
Shows Old Testament grounding that frames or supports this passage.
I will put hostility between you and the woman, and between your offspring and her offspring. He will bruise your head, and you will bruise his heel.”
Shows Old Testament grounding that frames or supports this passage.
“Look to me, and be saved, all the ends of the earth; for I am God, and there is no other. I have sworn by myself. The word has gone out of my mouth in righteousness, and will not be revoked, that to me every knee shall bow, every tongue...
Shows Old Testament grounding that frames or supports this passage.
Then those who feared Yahweh spoke one with another; and Yahweh listened, and heard, and a book of memory was written before him, for those who feared Yahweh, and who honored his name.
Shows Old Testament grounding that frames or supports this passage.
Shows Old Testament grounding that frames or supports this passage.
Provides immediate literary context around the same argument flow.
Paul, a servant of Jesus Christ, called to be an apostle, set apart for the Good News of God, which he promised before through his prophets in the holy Scriptures, concerning his Son, who was born of the offspring of David according to the...
Provides immediate literary context around the same argument flow.
For I am not ashamed of the Good News of Christ, because it is the power of God for salvation for everyone who believes, for the Jew first, and also for the Greek. For in it is revealed God’s righteousness from faith to faith. As it is...
Provides immediate literary context around the same argument flow.
Now accept one who is weak in faith, but not for disputes over opinions. One man has faith to eat all things, but he who is weak eats only vegetables. Don’t let him who eats despise him who doesn’t eat. Don’t let him who doesn’t eat judge...
Provides immediate literary context around the same argument flow.
Now I beg you, brothers, by our Lord Jesus Christ and by the love of the Spirit, that you strive together with me in your prayers to God for me, that I may be delivered from those who are disobedient in Judea, and that my service which I...
Provides immediate literary context around the same argument flow.
Now I beg you, brothers, look out for those who are causing the divisions and occasions of stumbling, contrary to the doctrine which you learned, and turn away from them. For those who are such don’t serve our Lord, Jesus Christ, but their...
Provides immediate literary context around the same argument flow.
Develops the same theological theme in another location.
For as the body is one, and has many members, and all the members of the body, being many, are one body; so also is Christ. For in one Spirit we were all baptized into one body, whether Jews or Greeks, whether bond or free; and were all...
Develops the same theological theme in another location.
Now to the King eternal, immortal, invisible, to God who alone is wise, be honor and glory forever and ever. Amen.
Develops the same theological theme in another location.
Put on the whole armor of God, that you may be able to stand against the wiles of the devil. For our wrestling is not against flesh and blood, but against the principalities, against the powers, against the world’s rulers of the darkness...
Develops the same theological theme in another location.
Oh the depth of the riches both of the wisdom and the knowledge of God! How unsearchable are his judgments, and his ways past tracing out! “For who has known the mind of the Lord? Or who has been his counselor?” “Or who has first given to...
Develops the same theological theme in another location.
Don’t be conformed to this world, but be transformed by the renewing of your mind, so that you may prove what is the good, well-pleasing, and perfect will of God.
Develops the same theological theme in another location.
For even as we have many members in one body, and all the members don’t have the same function, so we, who are many, are one body in Christ, and individually members of one another, having gifts differing according to the grace that was...
Develops the same theological theme in another location.
I myself am also persuaded about you, my brothers, that you yourselves are full of goodness, filled with all knowledge, able also to admonish others. But I write the more boldly to you in part, as reminding you, because of the grace that...
Develops the same theological theme in another location.
Now I say that Christ has been made a servant of the circumcision for the truth of God, that he might confirm the promises given to the fathers, and that the Gentiles might glorify God for his mercy. As it is written, “Therefore I will...
Develops the same theological theme in another location.
But thanks be to God, that, whereas you were bondservants of sin, you became obedient from the heart to that form of teaching to which you were delivered.
Gospel Clarity
Romans 16 clarifies that the gospel is not only a doctrine to be confessed but a divine power by which God establishes His people, forms holy fellowship, guards the church from deception, defeats Satan, reveals the long-hidden mystery, and brings the nations to the obedience of faith through Jesus Christ. The gospel ends in glory to the only wise God.
Gospel Guardrails
- Faithful servants are received in the Lord.
- Gospel ministry is carried by co-workers, households, benefactors, and laborers.
- The church is a holy fellowship, not a religious audience.
- Apostolic teaching guards the church's unity.
- Divisive deceivers must be watched and avoided.
- False teachers may use smooth talk and flattery.
- True servants serve the Lord Christ, not their own appetites.
- Obedience is a public testimony of gospel fruit.
- Believers must be wise about good and innocent about evil.
- The God of peace will crush Satan under the church's feet.
- The grace of the Lord Jesus sustains the saints.
- God establishes believers according to the gospel.
- The gospel is the proclamation of Jesus Christ.
- The mystery hidden for long ages is now revealed.
- The prophetic writings disclose God's plan by His command.
- The gospel aims at the obedience of faith among all Gentiles.
- The only wise God receives glory forever through Jesus Christ.
- Do not treat Romans 16 as disposable personal details.
- Do not separate gospel doctrine from embodied church fellowship.
- Do not undervalue hidden workers, hosts, helpers, and faithful servants.
- Do not pursue unity without doctrinal boundaries.
- Do not tolerate divisive teachers who oppose apostolic doctrine.
- Do not confuse flattering speech with faithful ministry.
- Do not assume false teachers always appear hostile or obvious.
- Do not become experienced in evil while claiming maturity.
- Do not fight Satan's work with Satan's methods.
- Do not seek establishment apart from the gospel of Jesus Christ.
- Do not reduce the mystery of the gospel to private spirituality · it is for the obedience of faith among all nations.
- Do not end Romans with human achievement · end with glory to God through Jesus Christ.
Gospel Cross References
Now our Lord Jesus Christ himself, and God our Father, who loved us and gave us eternal comfort and good hope through grace, comfort your hearts and establish you in every good work and word.
the mystery which has been hidden for ages and generations. But now it has been revealed to his saints, to whom God was pleased to make known what are the riches of the glory of this mystery among the Gentiles, which is Christ in you, the...
Greet the brothers who are in Laodicea, and Nymphas, and the assembly that is in his house.
how that by revelation the mystery was made known to me, as I wrote before in few words, by which, when you read, you can perceive my understanding in the mystery of Christ, which in other generations was not made known to the children of...
I marvel that you are so quickly deserting him who called you in the grace of Christ to a different “good news”, but there isn’t another “good news.” Only there are some who trouble you and want to pervert the Good News of Christ. But even...
For many walk, of whom I told you often, and now tell you even weeping, as the enemies of the cross of Christ, whose end is destruction, whose god is the belly, and whose glory is in their shame, who think about earthly things.
Yes, I beg you also, true partner, help these women, for they labored with me in the Good News with Clement also, and the rest of my fellow workers, whose names are in the book of life.
Primary Emphasis
Romans 16 presents Christ as the Lord in whom believers receive one another, the one in whom co-workers labor, the Lord Christ whom true servants serve rather than their own appetites, the giver of grace to the church, the content of Paul's proclamation, and the mediator through whom eternal glory is given to the only wise God. The chapter closes the epistle by identifying the gospel with the proclamation of Jesus Christ and by locating the obedience of the nations under God's glory through Him.
Chapter Contribution
Romans 16 argues through personal greetings, warning, and doxology that the gospel is embodied in real fellowship and guarded by doctrinal vigilance. Faithful workers are to be received and honored. Divisive deceivers are to be avoided. The church's obedience must be joined to wisdom in good and innocence in evil. The God of peace will crush Satan, and the God who reveals and establishes through the gospel deserves eternal glory through Jesus Christ.
Doctrines in This Chapter
The church preserves and protects the teaching handed down by the apostles.
Believers share mutual fellowship and partnership in Christ.
Believers must evaluate teaching and avoid divisive error.
Men and women labor together for the gospel.
The gospel summons all nations to obedient faith.
All redemptive history culminates in God’s eternal praise.
The Lord’s grace sustains believers until final victory.
God’s redemptive plan in Christ, once concealed, is now fully revealed.
Ministry is marked by humble service and sacrifice.
The church relates as brothers and sisters in the Lord.
False teaching participates in the broader conflict with Satan.
Doctrinal Weight
The gospel creates a named, holy, affectionate fellowship of saints and co-workers.
Faithful ministry is service in the Lord, seen in Phoebe, Priscilla, Aquila, and many others.
House churches and hosts such as Priscilla, Aquila, and Gaius show hospitality as central to mission and fellowship.
The church must watch for and avoid those who cause divisions contrary to apostolic teaching.
False teachers serve their own appetites and deceive the naive through smooth talk and flattery.
The Romans' obedience is known to all, and the gospel aims at the obedience of faith among all nations.
Believers are to be wise about good and innocent about evil.
God will crush Satan under the feet of His people, connecting church faithfulness to cosmic conflict.
The grace of the Lord Jesus sustains the church amid conflict, deception, and mission.
God is able to establish believers according to the gospel and proclamation of Jesus Christ.
The gospel reveals the mystery hidden for long ages but now disclosed through prophetic writings.
The prophetic writings make known God's revealed mystery by the command of the eternal God.
The revealed gospel is made known so that all Gentiles might come to the obedience of faith.
The final doxology praises the only wise God whose gospel plan displays eternal wisdom.
All glory belongs forever to God through Jesus Christ.
Reading Lenses
Theological exposition and fulfillment
- Romans 16 clarifies that the gospel is not only a doctrine to be confessed but a divine power by which God establishes His people, forms holy fellowship, guards the church from deception, defeats Satan, reveals the long-hidden mystery, and brings the nations to the obedience of faith through Jesus Christ. The gospel ends in glory to the only wise God.
Key Greek Terms
Sense to commend; introduce; recommend
Definition Paul commends Phoebe to the Roman believers.
References Romans 16:1
Lexicon to commend; introduce; recommend
Why it matters The chapter opens with formal recognition of a faithful servant whose reception matters to the church.
Form in passage Accusative · Singular · Feminine What is this?
Sense servant; minister; deacon depending on context
Definition Phoebe is called a servant of the church in Cenchreae.
References Romans 16:1
Lexicon servant; minister; deacon depending on context
Why it matters Phoebe is publicly commended as a recognized servant of a local church.
Form in passage Genitive · Singular · Feminine What is this?
Sense assembly; church; gathered people
Definition Phoebe serves the church in Cenchreae, and a church meets in Priscilla and Aquila's house.
References Romans 16:1, 16:5
Lexicon assembly; church; gathered people
Why it matters Romans 16 reveals local and house-based expressions of the church.
Form in passage Aorist · Middle · Subjunctive · 2nd Person · Plural What is this?
Sense to receive; welcome; accept
Definition The Romans are to receive Phoebe in the Lord.
References Romans 16:2
Lexicon to receive; welcome; accept
Why it matters Faithful servants should be welcomed as belonging to Christ and His people.
Sense in the Lord; in relation to Christ's lordship
Definition Phoebe is to be received in the Lord, and many saints labor in the Lord.
References Romans 16:2, 16:8-13, 16:22
Lexicon in the Lord; in relation to Christ's lordship
Why it matters Christian reception and service are governed by belonging to Christ.
Sense worthily of the saints; fitting for holy ones
Definition Phoebe is to be received in a manner worthy of God's holy people.
References Romans 16:2
Lexicon worthily of the saints; fitting for holy ones
Why it matters The church's hospitality must fit its identity as saints.
Form in passage Aorist · Active · Subjunctive · 2nd Person · Plural What is this?
Sense to stand by; assist; help
Definition The Romans are to help Phoebe in whatever matter she needs.
References Romans 16:2
Lexicon to stand by; assist; help
Why it matters Receiving a servant includes practical assistance, not only verbal welcome.
Form in passage Nominative · Singular · Feminine What is this?
Sense benefactor; patron; helper; protector
Definition Phoebe has been a benefactor of many, including Paul.
References Romans 16:2
Lexicon benefactor; patron; helper; protector
Why it matters Phoebe's ministry involved significant material or protective support of gospel workers.
Form in passage Aorist · Middle · Imperative · 2nd Person · Plural What is this?
Sense to greet; salute; welcome
Definition Paul repeatedly commands the church to greet named believers.
References Romans 16:3-16
Lexicon to greet; salute; welcome
Why it matters Greetings are acts of recognition, honor, fellowship, and unity.
Form in passage Accusative · Plural · Masculine What is this?
Sense co-worker; fellow laborer
Definition Priscilla and Aquila are Paul's co-workers in Christ Jesus.
References Romans 16:3
Lexicon co-worker; fellow laborer
Why it matters Gospel ministry is shared labor, not solitary achievement.
Individual words χωρὶς Χριστοῦ chōris Christou · Christ Jesus our hope Christos Iēsous hē elpis hēmōn
Form in passage Dative · Singular · Masculine What is this?
Sense in Christ Jesus; united to and serving within Christ
Definition Paul's co-workers are such in Christ Jesus.
References Romans 16:3
Lexicon in Christ Jesus; united to and serving within Christ
Why it matters Christian labor is defined by union with Christ and service under Him.
Form in passage Aorist · Active · Indicative · 3rd Person · Plural What is this?
Sense to place under; risk; expose
Definition Priscilla and Aquila risked their necks for Paul's life.
References Romans 16:4
Lexicon to place under; risk; expose
Why it matters Gospel partnership may require costly personal risk.
Form in passage Accusative · Singular · Masculine What is this?
Sense neck; life exposed to danger by idiom
Definition Priscilla and Aquila risked their necks for Paul.
References Romans 16:4
Lexicon neck; life exposed to danger by idiom
Why it matters The phrase emphasizes sacrificial courage in gospel service.
Form in passage Present · Active · Indicative · 1st Person · Singular What is this?
Sense to give thanks
Definition Paul and all the Gentile churches give thanks for Priscilla and Aquila.
References Romans 16:4
Lexicon to give thanks
Why it matters Faithful service produces gratitude across churches.
Form in passage Accusative · Singular · Masculine What is this?
Sense beloved; dearly loved
Definition Paul repeatedly calls named believers beloved.
References Romans 16:5, 16:8-9, 16:12
Lexicon beloved; dearly loved
Why it matters Romans 16 is filled with personal affection grounded in gospel fellowship.
Form in passage Nominative · Singular · Feminine What is this?
Sense firstfruits; first portion; first convert
Definition Epenetus is called the firstfruits of Asia for Christ.
References Romans 16:5
Lexicon firstfruits; first portion; first convert
Why it matters The term marks early gospel fruit in a region as consecrated to Christ.
Form in passage Aorist · Active · Indicative · 3rd Person · Singular What is this?
Sense to labor; toil; work hard
Definition Paul repeatedly honors those who worked hard in the Lord.
References Romans 16:6, 16:12
Lexicon to labor; toil; work hard
Why it matters Labor in the Lord is worthy of public recognition and gratitude.
Form in passage Accusative · Plural · Masculine What is this?
Sense relatives; kinsmen; fellow countrymen
Definition Paul identifies several people as relatives or fellow Jews.
References Romans 16:7, 16:11, 16:21
Lexicon relatives; kinsmen; fellow countrymen
Why it matters Paul's greetings include Jewish connections within the mixed Roman church network.
Form in passage Accusative · Plural · Masculine What is this?
Sense fellow prisoner; fellow captive
Definition Andronicus and Junia were Paul's fellow prisoners.
References Romans 16:7
Lexicon fellow prisoner; fellow captive
Why it matters Some of Paul's co-workers shared suffering and imprisonment for the gospel.
Form in passage Nominative · Plural · Masculine What is this?
Sense notable; outstanding; well known
Definition Andronicus and Junia are described as notable in relation to the apostles.
References Romans 16:7
Lexicon notable; outstanding; well known
Why it matters The phrase marks their recognized significance in early Christian ministry networks.
Form in passage Dative · Plural · Masculine What is this?
Sense apostles; sent ones; authorized messengers depending on context
Definition Andronicus and Junia are notable among or to the apostles.
References Romans 16:7
Lexicon apostles; sent ones; authorized messengers depending on context
Why it matters The phrase has generated discussion, but at minimum indicates high recognition among early gospel workers.
Form in passage Accusative · Singular · Masculine What is this?
Sense approved; tested; proven genuine
Definition Apelles is approved in Christ.
References Romans 16:10
Lexicon approved; tested; proven genuine
Why it matters Faithfulness tested over time is honored in the church.
Form in passage Accusative · Singular · Masculine What is this?
Sense chosen; elect; choice
Definition Rufus is described as chosen in the Lord.
References Romans 16:13
Lexicon chosen; elect; choice
Why it matters Election language appears even in personal greetings, reminding the church of God's gracious choice.
Form in passage Dative · Singular · Neuter What is this?
Sense holy kiss; sanctified greeting of affection
Definition Believers are commanded to greet one another with a holy kiss.
References Romans 16:16
Lexicon holy kiss; sanctified greeting of affection
Why it matters Christian affection is embodied, communal, and holy.
Form in passage Present · Active · Infinitive What is this?
Sense to watch; look carefully; keep an eye on
Definition Believers must watch out for those who cause divisions.
References Romans 16:17
Lexicon to watch; look carefully; keep an eye on
Why it matters Doctrinal vigilance requires alert attention, not passive optimism.
Form in passage Accusative · Plural · Feminine What is this?
Sense divisions; dissensions; separations
Definition False teachers cause divisions contrary to apostolic teaching.
References Romans 16:17
Lexicon divisions; dissensions; separations
Why it matters Division contrary to truth is not a harmless difference but a threat to the church.
Form in passage Accusative · Plural · Neuter What is this?
Sense stumbling blocks; snares; obstacles causing offense or fall
Definition Divisive people create obstacles contrary to the teaching believers learned.
References Romans 16:17
Lexicon stumbling blocks; snares; obstacles causing offense or fall
Why it matters False teaching trips and damages believers rather than building them up.
Form in passage Accusative · Singular · Feminine What is this?
Sense teaching; doctrine; instruction
Definition Divisive teachers act contrary to the teaching the believers learned.
References Romans 16:17
Lexicon teaching; doctrine; instruction
Why it matters Apostolic doctrine is the standard by which dangerous division is identified.
Form in passage Present · Active · Imperative · 2nd Person · Plural What is this?
Sense to turn away; avoid; keep clear
Definition Believers are commanded to keep away from divisive deceivers.
References Romans 16:17
Lexicon to turn away; avoid; keep clear
Why it matters Some threats require separation, not endless engagement.
Form in passage Present · Active · Indicative · 3rd Person · Plural What is this?
Sense to serve; be enslaved to; be devoted to
Definition False teachers do not serve the Lord Christ but their own appetites.
References Romans 16:18
Lexicon to serve; be enslaved to; be devoted to
Why it matters The true object of service exposes the heart of ministry.
Individual words βασιλεὺς τῶν βασιλευόντων καὶ κύριος τῶν κυριευόντων basileus tōn basileuontōn kai kyrios tōn kyrieuontōn · χωρὶς Χριστοῦ chōris Christou
Form in passage Dative · Singular · Masculine What is this?
Sense Lord Christ; Messiah as sovereign master
Definition True servants serve the Lord Christ, but false teachers do not.
References Romans 16:18
Lexicon Lord Christ; Messiah as sovereign master
Why it matters Christ's lordship is the standard for true ministry.
Form in passage Dative · Singular · Feminine What is this?
Sense belly; appetite; selfish desire
Definition False teachers serve their own appetites.
References Romans 16:18
Lexicon belly; appetite; selfish desire
Why it matters Self-interest, not Christ, drives divisive deception.
Form in passage Genitive · Singular · Feminine What is this?
Sense smooth speech; plausible pleasing talk
Definition False teachers deceive through smooth talk.
References Romans 16:18
Lexicon smooth speech; plausible pleasing talk
Why it matters Pleasing rhetoric can hide destructive motives and doctrine.
Form in passage Genitive · Singular · Feminine What is this?
Sense flattery; fine speech; blessing depending on context
Definition False teachers deceive through flattering speech.
References Romans 16:18
Lexicon flattery; fine speech; blessing depending on context
Why it matters The church must discern when appealing words are manipulative rather than faithful.
Form in passage Present · Active · Indicative · 3rd Person · Plural What is this?
Sense to deceive thoroughly; mislead
Definition False teachers deceive the hearts of the naive.
References Romans 16:18
Lexicon to deceive thoroughly; mislead
Why it matters False teaching is spiritually dangerous because it misleads people from truth.
Form in passage Genitive · Plural · Masculine What is this?
Sense innocent; unsuspecting; naive
Definition Smooth deceivers target the unsuspecting.
References Romans 16:18
Lexicon innocent; unsuspecting; naive
Why it matters Innocence without discernment can become vulnerability to deception.
Form in passage Nominative · Singular · Feminine What is this?
Sense obedience; submissive response
Definition The Romans' obedience is known to everyone.
References Romans 16:19
Lexicon obedience; submissive response
Why it matters Gospel faith produces visible obedience that becomes widely known.
Form in passage Accusative · Plural · Masculine What is this?
Sense wise; skilled; discerning
Definition Paul wants believers wise about what is good.
References Romans 16:19
Lexicon wise; skilled; discerning
Why it matters Christian maturity grows in practiced discernment and skill in goodness.
Form in passage Accusative · Singular · Neuter What is this?
Sense good; morally beneficial; upright
Definition Believers should be wise about what is good.
References Romans 16:19
Lexicon good; morally beneficial; upright
Why it matters The church must develop deep skill in goodness, not merely avoidance of error.
Form in passage Accusative · Plural · Masculine What is this?
Sense innocent; pure; unmixed; guileless
Definition Believers should be innocent about what is evil.
References Romans 16:19
Lexicon innocent; pure; unmixed; guileless
Why it matters Maturity does not require experiential knowledge of evil.
Form in passage Accusative · Singular · Neuter What is this?
Sense evil; harmful; morally wrong
Definition Believers should be innocent about evil.
References Romans 16:19
Lexicon evil; harmful; morally wrong
Why it matters The church must not become sophisticated in wickedness.
Cross-language bridge 1 link · View in lexicon
Individual words βδέλυγμα ἐνώπιον τοῦ θεοῦ bdelygma enōpion tou theou · βασιλεὺς εἰρήνης basileus eirēnēs
Form in passage Genitive · Singular · Feminine What is this?
Sense God of peace
Definition The God of peace will soon crush Satan under believers' feet.
References Romans 16:20
Lexicon God of peace
Why it matters God's peace is not passive; He defeats the enemy who disrupts peace.
Form in passage Future · Active · Indicative · 3rd Person · Singular What is this?
Sense to crush; shatter; break in pieces
Definition God will crush Satan under the feet of believers.
References Romans 16:20
Lexicon to crush; shatter; break in pieces
Why it matters The promise echoes God's victory over the serpent and assures the church of Satan's defeat.
Form in passage Accusative · Singular · Masculine What is this?
Sense Satan; adversary
Definition Satan will be crushed under believers' feet by the God of peace.
References Romans 16:20
Lexicon Satan; adversary
Why it matters Church division and deception are part of spiritual warfare against the adversary.
Cross-language bridge 1 link · View in lexicon
Form in passage Nominative · Singular · Feminine What is this?
Sense grace; favor; enabling mercy
Definition Paul blesses the believers with the grace of the Lord Jesus.
References Romans 16:20, 16:24
Lexicon grace; favor; enabling mercy
Why it matters Grace sustains the church in obedience, discernment, and conflict.
Form in passage Aorist · Active · Participle · Singular What is this?
Sense to write
Definition Tertius identifies himself as the one who wrote down the letter.
References Romans 16:22
Lexicon to write
Why it matters The greeting reveals the use of an amanuensis and the embodied process of letter production.
Form in passage Nominative · Singular · Masculine What is this?
Sense host; stranger; guest-friend depending on context
Definition Gaius is Paul's host and host of the whole church.
References Romans 16:23
Lexicon host; stranger; guest-friend depending on context
Why it matters Hospitality materially supports apostolic ministry and church gathering.
Form in passage Nominative · Singular · Masculine What is this?
Sense steward of the city; city official
Definition Erastus is identified as a city official.
References Romans 16:23
Lexicon steward of the city; city official
Why it matters The greetings include believers from varied social locations, including public office.
Sense to be able; have power
Definition God is able to establish the believers.
References Romans 16:25
Lexicon to be able; have power
Why it matters The final doxology rests on God's power, not human stability.
Sense to establish; strengthen; make firm
Definition God is able to establish believers according to the gospel.
References Romans 16:25
Lexicon to establish; strengthen; make firm
Why it matters Christian stability comes through God's strengthening work in the gospel.
Sense gospel; good news
Definition God establishes believers according to Paul's gospel.
References Romans 16:25
Lexicon gospel; good news
Why it matters The gospel is not merely entry into salvation but the means of ongoing establishment.
Sense proclamation; preached message
Definition God establishes believers according to the proclamation of Jesus Christ.
References Romans 16:25
Lexicon proclamation; preached message
Why it matters The preached message of Christ is central to God's strengthening work.
Cross-language bridge 1 link · View in lexicon
Sense revelation; unveiling; disclosure
Definition The gospel is according to the revelation of the mystery.
References Romans 16:25
Lexicon revelation; unveiling; disclosure
Why it matters God's saving plan is unveiled by divine revelation, not human discovery.
Sense mystery; divine purpose once hidden and now revealed
Definition The gospel reveals the mystery hidden for long ages.
References Romans 16:25
Lexicon mystery; divine purpose once hidden and now revealed
Why it matters Romans ends by framing the gospel as God's long-hidden plan now disclosed in Christ.
Sense to keep silent; conceal; keep hidden
Definition The mystery was kept hidden for long ages.
References Romans 16:25
Lexicon to keep silent; conceal; keep hidden
Why it matters The final gospel revelation has deep roots in God's eternal plan.
Sense long ages; eternal times
Definition The mystery was hidden for long ages.
References Romans 16:25
Lexicon long ages; eternal times
Why it matters God's gospel plan stretches across the ages and is not a late improvisation.
Sense to reveal; make manifest; make visible
Definition The mystery has now been revealed.
References Romans 16:26
Lexicon to reveal; make manifest; make visible
Why it matters The gospel age is marked by the disclosure of God's hidden plan.
Sense prophetic Scriptures; prophetic writings
Definition The mystery is made known through prophetic writings.
References Romans 16:26
Lexicon prophetic Scriptures; prophetic writings
Why it matters The gospel revelation stands in continuity with Scripture's prophetic witness.
Sense command; authoritative order
Definition The mystery is made known by the command of the eternal God.
References Romans 16:26
Lexicon command; authoritative order
Why it matters The gospel's worldwide disclosure rests on God's sovereign command.
Individual words basileia aiōnios basileia / aiōnios · βδέλυγμα ἐνώπιον τοῦ θεοῦ bdelygma enōpion tou theou
Sense eternal God
Definition The command to make the mystery known comes from the eternal God.
References Romans 16:26
Lexicon eternal God
Why it matters God's gospel plan is grounded in His eternal authority and wisdom.
Sense to make known; disclose
Definition The mystery is made known to all Gentiles.
References Romans 16:26
Lexicon to make known; disclose
Why it matters The gospel is meant for public proclamation among the nations.
Sense obedience of faith; obedience that springs from faith or consists in faith-filled allegiance
Definition The gospel is made known to bring about the obedience of faith among all Gentiles.
References Romans 16:26
Lexicon obedience of faith; obedience that springs from faith or consists in faith-filled allegiance
Why it matters Romans begins and ends with this phrase, framing the whole letter's missionary aim.
Individual words μόνῳ σοφῷ θεῷ monō sophō theō · σοφῶν καὶ συνετῶν sophōn kai synetōn · βδέλυγμα ἐνώπιον τοῦ θεοῦ bdelygma enōpion tou theou
Sense only wise God
Definition Paul gives glory to the only wise God.
References Romans 16:27
Lexicon only wise God
Why it matters The gospel displays divine wisdom that belongs uniquely to God.
Sense glory; honor; praise; splendor
Definition To God be glory forever through Jesus Christ.
References Romans 16:27
Lexicon glory; honor; praise; splendor
Why it matters The final aim of Romans is God's eternal glory.
Sense forever; unto the ages
Definition Glory belongs to God forever.
References Romans 16:27
Lexicon forever; unto the ages
Why it matters Romans ends with eternal doxology rather than merely temporal application.
Lexicon data: MorphGNT Strong's Dictionary XML (CC0) · Open Scriptures Hebrew Bible (CC BY 4.0) · Open Scriptures Hebrew Lexicon (CC BY 4.0) · STEPBible Data (CC BY 4.0) · Full details
Discourse Connectives (14)
grounds / explanation 3inference / conclusion 1strong contrast / correction 2purpose clause 1continuation or mild contrast 5contrast setup (μέν...δέ) 1additive / emphatic 1
| v.1 | δὲnowcontinuation or mild contrastNote where δέ appears in a μέν...δέ pair — that structure is a deliberate contrast. |
| v.2 | ἵναthatpurpose clauseἵνα clauses often contain the theological payoff: 'so that God might...'γὰρforgrounds / explanationAsk: what claim is this 'for' grounding? That claim is the main point. |
| v.4 | ἀλλὰbutstrong contrast / correctionAsk: what is being set aside? What is being asserted instead? |
| v.5 | καὶandadditive / emphaticClause-initial καί in Paul often links equal-weight clauses that should be read together. |
| v.17 | δὲnowcontinuation or mild contrastNote where δέ appears in a μέν...δέ pair — that structure is a deliberate contrast. |
| v.18 | γὰρForgrounds / explanationAsk: what claim is this 'for' grounding? That claim is the main point.ἀλλὰbutstrong contrast / correctionAsk: what is being set aside? What is being asserted instead? |
| v.19 | γὰρforgrounds / explanationAsk: what claim is this 'for' grounding? That claim is the main point.οὖνthereforeinference / conclusionAsk: what has Paul argued up to this point? 'Therefore' is the payoff.δὲhowevercontinuation or mild contrastNote where δέ appears in a μέν...δέ pair — that structure is a deliberate contrast.μὲνindeedcontrast setup (μέν...δέ)The μέν...δέ pair is a rhetorical hinge. Both sides matter equally.δὲhowevercontinuation or mild contrastNote where δέ appears in a μέν...δέ pair — that structure is a deliberate contrast. |
| v.20 | δὲnowcontinuation or mild contrastNote where δέ appears in a μέν...δέ pair — that structure is a deliberate contrast. |
Discourse data: STEPBible TAGNT (CC BY 4.0)
Verb Aspect (42 main verbs)
completed 5ongoing 12prospective 1imperative 17subjunctive 3infinitive 1participle 3
| v.1 | Συνίστημιsynistáōcommendpresent active indicativeongoingPresent indicative — ongoing, habitual, or general truth |
| v.2 | προσδέξησθεprosdéchomaiwelcomeaorist middle subjunctivesubjunctiveSubjunctive mood — conditional, purpose, or contingentπαραστῆτεparístēmihelpaorist active subjunctivesubjunctiveSubjunctive mood — conditional, purpose, or contingentχρῄζῃchrḗizōneedpresent active subjunctivesubjunctiveSubjunctive mood — conditional, purpose, or contingent |
| v.3 | Ἀσπάσασθεgreetaorist middle imperativeimperativeImperative mood — command or exhortation |
| v.4 | ὑπέθηκανhypotíthēmiriskedaorist active indicativecompletedAorist indicative — punctiliar or completed actionεὐχαριστῶeucharistéōgive thankspresent active indicativeongoingPresent indicative — ongoing, habitual, or general truth |
| v.5 | ἀσπάσασθεgreetaorist middle imperativeimperativeImperative mood — command or exhortation |
| v.6 | ἀσπάσασθεgreetaorist middle imperativeimperativeImperative mood — command or exhortationἐκοπίασενkopiáōworkedaorist active indicativecompletedAorist indicative — punctiliar or completed action |
| v.7 | ἀσπάσασθεgreetaorist middle imperativeimperativeImperative mood — command or exhortation |
| v.8 | ἀσπάσασθεgreetaorist middle imperativeimperativeImperative mood — command or exhortation |
| v.9 | ἀσπάσασθεgreetaorist middle imperativeimperativeImperative mood — command or exhortation |
| v.10 | ἀσπάσασθεgreetaorist middle imperativeimperativeImperative mood — command or exhortationἀσπάσασθεgreetaorist middle imperativeimperativeImperative mood — command or exhortation |
| v.11 | ἀσπάσασθεgreetaorist middle imperativeimperativeImperative mood — command or exhortationἀσπάσασθεgreetaorist middle imperativeimperativeImperative mood — command or exhortation |
| v.12 | ἀσπάσασθεgreetaorist middle imperativeimperativeImperative mood — command or exhortationκοπιώσαςkopiáōworkerspresent active participleparticipleParticiple — verbal adjective, supporting actionἀσπάσασθεgreetaorist middle imperativeimperativeImperative mood — command or exhortationἐκοπίασενkopiáōworkedaorist active indicativecompletedAorist indicative — punctiliar or completed action |
| v.13 | ἀσπάσασθεgreetaorist middle imperativeimperativeImperative mood — command or exhortation |
| v.14 | ἀσπάσασθεgreetaorist middle imperativeimperativeImperative mood — command or exhortation |
| v.15 | ἀσπάσασθεgreetaorist middle imperativeimperativeImperative mood — command or exhortation |
| v.16 | Ἀσπάσασθεgreetaorist middle imperativeimperativeImperative mood — command or exhortationἈσπάζονταιgreetpresent middle indicativeongoingPresent indicative — ongoing, habitual, or general truth |
| v.17 | Παρακαλῶparakaléōurgepresent active indicativeongoingPresent indicative — ongoing, habitual, or general truthσκοπεῖνskopéōwatch outpresent active infinitiveinfinitiveInfinitive — verbal noun or complementary verbἐμάθετεmanthánōlearnedaorist active indicativecompletedAorist indicative — punctiliar or completed actionποιοῦνταςpoiéōcausepresent active participleparticipleParticiple — verbal adjective, supporting actionἐκκλίνετεekklínōavoidpresent active imperativeimperativeImperative mood — command or exhortation |
| v.18 | δουλεύουσινdouleúōservepresent active indicativeongoingPresent indicative — ongoing, habitual, or general truthἐξαπατῶσιexapatáōdeceivepresent active indicativeongoingPresent indicative — ongoing, habitual, or general truth |
| v.19 | ἀφίκετοreachedaorist middle indicativecompletedAorist indicative — punctiliar or completed actionχαίρωchaírōrejoicepresent active indicativeongoingPresent indicative — ongoing, habitual, or general truthθέλωthélōwantpresent active indicativeongoingPresent indicative — ongoing, habitual, or general truth |
| v.20 | συντρίψειsyntríbōcrushfuture active indicativeprospectiveFuture indicative — anticipated or promised action |
| v.21 | Ἀσπάζεταιgreetspresent middle indicativeongoingPresent indicative — ongoing, habitual, or general truth |
| v.22 | ἀσπάζομαιgreetpresent middle indicativeongoingPresent indicative — ongoing, habitual, or general truthγράψαςgráphōwroteaorist active participleparticipleParticiple — verbal adjective, supporting action |
| v.23 | ἀσπάζεταιgreetspresent middle indicativeongoingPresent indicative — ongoing, habitual, or general truthἀσπάζεταιgreetpresent middle indicativeongoingPresent indicative — ongoing, habitual, or general truth |
Verb forms indicate aspect — not interpretive weight. Consult context before drawing conclusions about emphasis.
Clause data: MACULA Greek (Clear Bible, CC BY 4.0) · SBLGNT (Logos/SBL, CC BY 4.0)
Word Pictures (Robertson)
A.T. Robertson, Word Pictures in the New Testament (1930–31) — public domain
Formation Focus
To show that the gospel establishes a holy, relational, mission-connected church that receives faithful servants, resists divisive deception, trusts the God of peace to crush Satan, and gives glory to the only wise God through Jesus Christ.
To form believers who honor gospel labor, practice holy fellowship, guard doctrine, resist flattering deception, grow wise in good, remain innocent in evil, and rest in God's establishing gospel.
Hospitality, gratitude, holy affection, discernment, doctrinal faithfulness, obedience, wisdom, innocence, confidence in God's victory, dependence on grace, and doxological worship.
Practice Response
- Commend and encourage one faithful worker by name.
- Ask how Your church can better receive, help, and send servants of Christ.
- Use Your home or resources for holy fellowship and gospel support.
- Honor both visible and hidden labor in the Lord.
- Examine whether Your church culture values co-workers or only platform figures.
- Practice holy affection through sincere greeting, prayer, and care.
- Identify teaching or influence that creates divisions contrary to apostolic doctrine.
- Refuse to be manipulated by smooth talk, flattery, and personality-driven spirituality.
- Keep away from destructive divisiveness instead of endlessly negotiating with it.
- Choose one concrete way to become wiser in what is good.
- Remove one unnecessary exposure to evil curiosity.
- Pray Romans 16:20 over the church's conflicts and temptations.
- Ask the Lord Jesus for grace to stand firm.
- Meditate on Romans 16:25-27 as the final frame for the whole letter.
- Pray for the obedience of faith among the nations.
- End Your study of Romans with doxology, not mere analysis.
Warnings and Misreadings
- Romans 16 gives a strong warning against those who create divisions and obstacles contrary to apostolic teaching. Such people must be watched for and avoided because they do not serve the Lord Christ but their own appetites, deceiving the unsuspecting through smooth speech and flattery.
- Romans 16 is merely a list of names with little theological value. - The names reveal the embodied fruit of Paul's gospel: co-labor, sacrifice, house churches, holy fellowship, Jew-Gentile networks, and concrete love.
- Personal relationships are secondary to doctrine. - Romans 16 shows doctrine producing affectionate, named, embodied fellowship and partnership.
- Christian hospitality and assistance are optional niceties. - Paul commands the church to receive Phoebe and help her in whatever matter she needs.
- Warnings about false teachers are unloving. - Paul's warning protects the church from divisions and obstacles contrary to apostolic teaching.
- Unity means tolerating anyone who uses Christian language. - Paul commands avoidance of those who create divisions contrary to the teaching the church learned.
- False teachers are always obvious by harsh speech. - Paul says they deceive through smooth talk and flattery.
- Being innocent about evil means being naive. - Paul pairs innocence about evil with wisdom about good and watchfulness against deceivers.
- The crushing of Satan is only individual encouragement. - The promise is given to the church community and echoes God's larger redemptive victory over the serpent.
- The gospel is only personal forgiveness. - The doxology presents the gospel as God's revealed mystery now made known for the obedience of faith among all nations.
- Obedience of faith is legalism. - Romans begins and ends with obedience of faith, meaning the faith-produced allegiance and obedience brought about by the gospel among the nations.
Discipleship Questions
- Do I receive and assist faithful servants of Christ in a manner worthy of the saints?
- Who are the hidden workers in the church that I need to honor and encourage?
- Do I treat ministry as a network of beloved co-workers or as isolated personal output?
- Am I willing to risk comfort, reputation, or safety for gospel partnership?
- Does my home, schedule, and life serve the church as a place of fellowship and mission?
- Do I practice holy affection toward believers, or do I keep fellowship distant and transactional?
- Can I identify teaching that is contrary to apostolic doctrine?
- Am I too impressed by smooth talk and flattery?
- Where might I be tolerating divisive influences in the name of being nice?
- Do I serve the Lord Christ, or am I quietly serving my own appetites?
- Am I becoming wise about what is good?
- Am I innocent about evil, or am I curious, entertained, and informed by it?
- Do I trust the God of peace to defeat Satan without adopting Satanic methods?
- Am I standing in the grace of the Lord Jesus?
- What does it mean for God to establish me according to the gospel?
- Does my understanding of the gospel include God's revealed mystery and mission to all nations?
- Is my obedience the obedience that comes from faith?
- Does my life end in glory to the only wise God through Jesus Christ?
Pastoral Applications
- Romans 16 teaches churches to honor people by name, recognize hidden labor, and cultivate holy affection in the body.
- Phoebe, Priscilla, Aquila, and Gaius show that gospel ministry depends on receiving, helping, hosting, and sending.
- Leaders should publicly commend faithful workers and protect the church from divisive deceivers.
- Romans 16 demonstrates that women were significant servants, benefactors, co-workers, and laborers in the Lord's work.
- The church in homes reminds modern churches that discipleship and mission thrive through household-level fellowship and hospitality.
- The church must evaluate teachers by apostolic doctrine and fruit, not personality, verbal polish, or social appeal.
- Divisive people must not be allowed to continually fracture the body under the cover of spiritual talk.
- Those drawn to evil curiosity need Romans 16:19: wise about good, innocent about evil.
- The church's battle against division and deception is not merely social · God will crush Satan under His people's feet.
- Believers are established not by personality, tradition, or sentiment but by the gospel and proclamation of Jesus Christ.
- Romans ends with the global aim of obedience of faith among all Gentiles, keeping local church life tied to worldwide mission.
- The letter's final destination is doxology: all glory belongs to the only wise God through Jesus Christ.
Pastoral Trajectories
After profound theology, Paul names real people, showing that gospel doctrine creates embodied relationships.
Phoebe's commendation calls the Roman church into active support of faithful ministry.
Priscilla and Aquila show that gospel partnership may involve real personal risk.
The greetings reveal churches meeting in homes and households participating in mission.
The church must be both warmly affectionate toward saints and watchful against deceivers.
Paul's love for unity does not eliminate doctrinal boundaries.
The church must prefer sound teaching over flattering rhetoric.
Paul rejoices in the Romans' obedience but still calls them to wisdom and innocence.
The warning against divisive deceivers is placed inside the promise that God will crush Satan.
The grace of Christ and the establishing power of God sustain the church.
God's long-hidden plan is now disclosed through the gospel and prophetic writings.
The letter ends by lifting the church's eyes from local fellowship to the obedience of faith among all Gentiles.
The final movement is worship: glory forever to the only wise God through Jesus Christ.
Motifs in This Chapter
Trace servant identity, obedient mission, and suffering service across Scripture.
Follow faith, believing response, trust, and persevering allegiance across Scripture.
Trace how divine glory, revealed majesty, and Christ-centered exaltation move across Scripture.
Track judgment as covenant accountability, divine justice, and eschatological reckoning.
Study kingdom reign, divine rule, and gospel kingdom proclamation across Scripture.
The Biblical World
Chapter At A Glance
Paul moves from commending Phoebe, to greeting many believers and house-church networks, to commanding holy mutual greeting, to warning against divisive deceivers, to promising Satan's crushing by the God of peace, to relaying greetings from His companions, and finally to doxology celebrating God's power to establish believers through the gospel of Jesus Christ now revealed for the obedience of the Gentiles.
Romans 16 shows the covenant people as a translocal, multi-household, multiethnic, mutually serving fellowship established by the revealed gospel. The doxology gathers the letter's covenant logic: the mystery once hidden is now revealed through the prophetic writings by the command of the eternal God, so that all Gentiles might come to the obedience of faith. The crushing of Satan under the church's feet echoes the primal promise of victory and places the church's perseverance within God's long redemptive plan.
Romans 16 clarifies that the gospel is not only a doctrine to be confessed but a divine power by which God establishes His people, forms holy fellowship, guards the church from deception, defeats Satan, reveals the long-hidden mystery, and brings the nations to the obedience of faith through Jesus Christ. The gospel ends in glory to the only wise God.
Hospitality, gratitude, holy affection, discernment, doctrinal faithfulness, obedience, wisdom, innocence, confidence in God's victory, dependence on grace, and doxological worship.
Focus Points
- Commendation
- Receiving saints
- Servanthood
- Benefaction
- Co-workers in Christ
- House churches
- Gospel labor
- Holy greeting
- Churches of Christ
- Divisions
- Obstacles
- Apostolic teaching
- Avoidance of false teachers
- Lord Christ
- Self-serving appetites
- Smooth talk and flattery
- Obedience
- Wisdom in good
- Innocence in evil
- God of peace
- Satan crushed
- Grace of the Lord Jesus
- Gospel establishment
- Proclamation of Jesus Christ
- Mystery revealed
- Prophetic writings
- Eternal God
- Obedience of faith
- Only wise God
- Glory through Jesus Christ
- Faithful Reception of Gospel Servants
- Women and Men in Gospel Labor
- House-Church Fellowship
- Sacrificial Co-Working
- Beloved Personal Fellowship
- Holy Affection
- Doctrinal Vigilance
- Separation from Divisive Deceivers
- False Service
- Smooth Deception
- Obedience Known to All
- Wise in Good, Innocent in Evil
- God of Peace Crushing Satan
- God Establishes Through the Gospel
- Obedience of Faith Among the Nations
- Glory to the Only Wise God
- Church Fellowship
- Hospitality
- Doctrinal Discernment
- False Teaching
- Wisdom and Innocence
- Spiritual Warfare
- Grace of Christ
- Scripture
- Mission to the Nations
- Divine Wisdom
- Doxology
Cross References
I will put hostility between You and the woman, and between Your offspring and her offspring. He will bruise Your head, and You will bruise His heel.”
Satan crushed
Now Yahweh said to Abram, “Leave Your country, and Your relatives, and Your father’s house, and go to the land that I will show You. I will make of You a great nation. I will bless You and make Your name great. You will be a blessing. I will bless those who bless You, and I will curse Him who treats You with contempt. All the families of the earth will be...
Nations blessed
May God be merciful to us, bless us, and cause His face to shine on us. That Your way may be known on earth, and Your salvation among all nations, let the peoples praise You, God. Let all the peoples praise You.
Nations praise God
Indeed, He says, “It is too light a thing that You should be my servant to raise up the tribes of Jacob, and to restore the preserved of Israel. I will also give You as a light to the nations, that You may be my salvation to the end of the earth.”
Light to Gentiles
So He will cleanse many nations. Kings will shut their mouths at Him; for they will see that which had not been told them, and they will understand that which they had not heard.
Uninformed nations see
Behold, His soul is puffed up. It is not upright in Him, but the righteous will live by His faith.
Faith and obedience
“Beware of false prophets, who come to You in sheep’s clothing, but inwardly are ravening wolves. By their fruits You will know them. Do You gather grapes from thorns, or figs from thistles? Even so, every good tree produces good fruit; but the corrupt tree produces evil fruit.
False prophets
“Behold, I send You out as sheep among wolves. Therefore be wise as serpents, and harmless as doves.
Wise and innocent
After these things Paul departed from Athens, and came to Corinth. He found a certain Jew named Aquila, a man of Pontus by race, who had recently come from Italy, with His wife Priscilla, because Claudius had commanded all the Jews to depart from Rome. He came to them, and because He practiced the same trade, He lived with them and worked, for by trade they...
Priscilla and Aquila
Paul, having stayed after this many more days, took His leave of the brothers, and sailed from there for Syria, together with Priscilla and Aquila. He shaved His head in Cenchreae, for He had a vow. He came to Ephesus, and He left them there; but He Himself entered into the synagogue, and reasoned with the Jews. When they asked Him to stay with them a...
Priscilla and Aquila ministry
For I know that after my departure, vicious wolves will enter in among You, not sparing the flock. Men will arise from among Your own selves, speaking perverse things, to draw away the disciples after them. Therefore watch, remembering that for a period of three years I didn’t cease to admonish everyone night and day with tears.
Warning against wolves
Through whom we received grace and apostleship for obedience of faith among all the nations for His name’s sake;
Obedience of faith opening
Oh the depth of the riches both of the wisdom and the knowledge of God! How unsearchable are His judgments, and His ways past tracing out! “For who has known the mind of the Lord? Or who has been His counselor?” “Or who has first given to Him, and it will be repaid to Him again?”
Earlier doxology
For I will not dare to speak of any things except those which Christ worked through me, for the obedience of the Gentiles, by word and deed,
Gentile obedience
Brothers, don’t be children in thoughts, yet in malice be babies, but in thoughts be mature.
Innocent about evil
I marvel that You are so quickly deserting Him who called You in the grace of Christ to a different “good news”, but there isn’t another “good news.” Only there are some who trouble You and want to pervert the Good News of Christ. But even though we, or an angel from heaven, should preach to You any “good news” other than that which we preached to You, let...
Guarding the gospel
How that by revelation the mystery was made known to me, as I wrote before in few words, by which, when You read, You can perceive my understanding in the mystery of Christ, which in other generations was not made known to the children of men, as it has now been revealed to His holy apostles and prophets in the Spirit,
Mystery revealed
That You may become blameless and harmless, children of God without defect in the middle of a crooked and perverse generation, among whom You are seen as lights in the world,
Innocent children of God
Of which I was made a servant according to the stewardship of God which was given me toward You to fulfill the word of God, the mystery which has been hidden for ages and generations. But now it has been revealed to His saints, to whom God was pleased to make known what are the riches of the glory of this mystery among the Gentiles, which is Christ in You,...
Mystery among Gentiles
Avoid a factious man after a first and second warning, knowing that such a one is perverted and sins, being self-condemned.
Divisive person
Doxology to the only God
Passages
Chapter opening: Romans 16:1-16
I commend (συνιστημ). The regular word for letters of commendation as in 2Co 3:1 (συστατικων επιστολων). See also Ro 3:5 . So here verses 1 , 2 constitute Paul's recommendation of Phoebe, the bearer of the Epistle. Nothing else is known of her, though her name (Φοιβη) means bright or radiant. Sister (αδελφην). In Christ, not in the flesh. Who is a servant of the church (ουσαν διακονον της εκκλησιας).
The etymology of διακονος we have had repeatedly. The only question here is whether it is used in a general sense or in a technical sense as in Php 1:1 ; 1Ti 3:8-13 . In favour of the technical sense of "deacon" or "deaconess" is the addition of "της εκκλησιας" (of the church). In some sense Phoebe was a servant or minister of the church in Cenchreae. Besides, right in the midst of the discussion in 1Ti 3:8-13 Paul has a discussion of γυναικας (verse 11 ) either as women as deaconesses or as the wives of deacons (less likely though possible).
The Apostolic Constitutions has numerous allusions to deaconesses. The strict separation of the sexes made something like deaconesses necessary for baptism, visiting the women, etc. Cenchreae, as the eastern port of Corinth, called for much service of this kind. Whether the deaconesses were a separate organization on a par with the deacons we do not know nor whether they were the widows alluded to in 1Ti 5:9 f .
Worthily of the saints (αξιως των αγιων). Adverb with the genitive as in Php 1:27 because the adjective αξιος is used with the genitive ( Lu 3:8 ). "Receive her in a way worthy of the saints." This word αγιος had come to be the accepted term for followers of Christ. Assist her (παραστητε). Second aorist (intransitive) active subjunctive of παριστημ, to stand by, with the dative case ("beside her"), the very word used by Paul of the help of Jesus in his trial (παρεστη, 2Ti 4:17 ).
Used with ινα as προσδεξησθε. In whatsoever matter (εν ω πραγματ). Incorporation of the antecedent (πραγματ) into the relative clause (ω). She may have need of you (αν υμων χρηιζη). Indefinite relative clause with αν and the present subjunctive of χρηιζω with genitive. A succourer (προστατις). Old and rare feminine form for the masculine προστατης, from προιστημ (προστατεω, common, but not in the N.
T.) , here only in the N. T. and not in the papyri. The word illustrates her work as διακονον and is perhaps suggested here by παραστητε, just before. Of mine own self (εμου αυτου). "Of me myself."
In verses 3-16 Paul sends his greetings to various brethren and sisters in Rome. Prisca and Aquila (Πρισκαν κα Ακυλαν). This order always ( Ac 18:18 , 26 ; 2Ti 4:19 , and here) save in Ac 18:2 ; 1Co 16:19 , showing that Prisca was the more prominent. Priscilla is a diminutive of Prisca, a name for women in the Acilian gens. She may have been a noble Roman lady, but her husband was a Jew of Pontus and a tent-maker by trade.
They were driven from Rome by Claudius, came to Corinth, then to Ephesus, then back to Rome, and again to Ephesus. They were good travelling Christians. My fellow-workers (τους συνεργους μου). Both in tent-making and in Christian service in Corinth and Ephesus.
Laid down their own necks (τον εαυτων τραχελον υπεθηκαν). First aorist active of υποτιθημ, old verb to place under (the axe of the executioner), only here in N.T. in this sense, though in 1Ti 4:16 to suggest. If literal or figurative, the incident may be connected with the uproar created by Demetrius in Ephesus. Certainly Paul felt deep obligation toward them (see Ac 20:34 ). Not only I (ουκ εγω μονος). Rather, "not I alone" (adjective μονος). The Gentile churches also (great mission workers).
The church that is in their house (την κατ' οικον αυτων εκκλησιαν). The early Christians had no church buildings. See also Ac 12:2 ; 1Co 16:19 ; Phm 1:2 ; Col 4:15 . The Roman Christians had probably several such homes where they would meet. Epainetus (Επαινετον). Nothing is known of him except this item, "the first-fruits of Asia" (απαρχη της Ασιας). An early convert from the province of Asia. Cf. Ac 2:9 ; 1Co 16:15 (about Stephanus and Achaia).
Mary (Μαριαν). Some MSS. have Μαριαμ, the Hebrew form. The name indicates a Jewish Christian in Rome. Paul praises her toil. See Lu 5:5 .
Andronicus and Junias (Ανδρονιχου κα Ιουνιαν). The first is a Greek name found even in the imperial household. The second name can be either masculine or feminine. Kinsmen (συγγενεις). Probably only fellow-countrymen as in 9:13 . Fellow-prisoners (συναιχμαλωτυς). Late word and rare (in Lucian). One of Paul's frequent compounds with συν. Literally, fellow captives in war.
Perhaps they had shared one of Paul's numerous imprisonments ( 2Co 11:23 ). In N. T. only here, Phm 1:23 ; Col 4:10 . Of note (επισημο). Stamped, marked (επ σημα). Old word, only here and Mt 27:16 (bad sense) in N. T. Among the apostles (εν τοις αποστολοις). Naturally this means that they are counted among the apostles in the general sense true of Barnabas, James, the brother of Christ, Silas, and others.
But it can mean simply that they were famous in the circle of the apostles in the technical sense. Who have been in Christ before me (ο κα προ εμου γεγοναν εν Χριστω). Andronicus and Junias were converted before Paul was. Note γεγοναν ( Koine form by analogy) instead of the usual second perfect active indicative form γεγονασιν, which some MSS. have. The perfect tense notes that they are still in Christ.
Ampliatus (Αμπλιατον). Some MSS. have a contracted form Amplias.
Urbanus (Ουρβανον). "A common Roman slave name found among members of the household" (Sanday and Headlam). A Latin adjective from urbs , city (city-bred). Stachys (Σταχυν). A Greek name, rare, but among members of the imperial household. It means a head or ear of grain ( Mt 12:1 ).
Apelles (Απελλην). A name among Jews and a famous tragic actor also. The approved (τον δοκιμον). The tried and true ( 1Co 11:19 ; 2Co 10:18 ; 13:7 ). Them which are of the household of Aristobulus (τους εκ των Αριστοβουλου). The younger Aristobulus was a grandson of Herod the Great. Lightfoot suggests that some of the servants in this household had become Christians, Aristobulus being dead.
Herodion (Hερωιδιωνα). Probably one belonging to the Herod family like that above. Kinsman (συγγενη). Merely fellow-countryman. Them of the household of Narcissus (τους εκ των Ναρκισσου). "Narcissiani." There was a famous freedman of this name who was put to death by Agrippa. Perhaps members of his household.
Tryphaena and Tryphosa (Τρυφαιναν κα Τρυφωσαν). Probably sisters and possibly twins. Both names come from the same root, the verb τρυφαω, to live luxuriously ( Jas 5:5 ). Denney suggests "Dainty and Disdain." Persis (Περσιδα). A freedwoman was so named. She is not Paul's "beloved," but the "beloved" of the whole church.
Rufus (Ρουφον). A very common slave name, possibly the Rufus of Mr 15:21 . The word means "red." The chosen (τον εκλεκτον). Not "the elect," but "the select." And mine (κα εμου). Paul's appreciation of her maternal care once, not his real mother.
Asyncritus (Ασυνκριτον). There is an inscription of a freedman of Augustus with this name. Phlegon (Φλεγοντα). No light on this name till the historian of the second century A. D. Hermes (Hερμην). A very common slave name. Patrobas (Πατροβαν). Name of a freedman of Nero, abbreviated form of Patrobius. Hermas (Hερμαν). Not the author of the Shepherd of Hermas.
Common as a slave name, shortened form of Hermagoras, Hermogenes, etc. The brethren that are with them (τους συν αυτοις αδελφους). Perhaps a little church in the house of some one.
Philologus (Φιλολογον). Another common slave name. Julia (Ιουλιαν). The commonest name for female slaves in the imperial household because of Julius Caesar. Possibly these two were husband and wife. Nereus (Νηρεα). Found in inscriptions of the imperial household. But the sister's name is not given. One wonders why. Olympas (Ολυμπαν). Possibly an abbreviation for Olympiodorus.
All the saints that are with them (τους συν αυτοις παντας αγιους). Possibly another church in the house. These unnamed, the "and others," constitute the great majority in all our churches.
With a holy kiss (εν φιληματ αγιω). The near-east mode of salutation as hand-shaking in the Western. In China one shakes hands with himself. Men kissed men and women kissed women. See 1Th 5 26 ; 1Co 16:20 ; 2Co 13:12 .
Mark (σκοπειτε). Keep an eye on so as to avoid. Σκοπος is the goal, σκοπεω means keeping your eye on the goal. Divisions (διχοστασιας). Old word for "standings apart," cleavages. In N.T. only here and Ga 5:20 . Those which are causing (τουσ--ποιουντας). This articular participle clause has within it not only the objects of the participle but the relative clause ην υμεις εμαθετε (which you learned), a thoroughly Greek idiom.
But their own belly (αλλα τη εαυτων κοιλια). Dative case after δουλευουσιν. A blunt phrase like the same picture in Php 3:19 "whose god is the belly," more truth than caricature in some cases. By their smooth and fair speech (δια της χρηστολογιας κα ευλογιας). Two compounds of λογος (speech), the first (from χρηστος and λογος) is very rare (here only in N. T.)
, the second is very common (ευ and λογος). Beguile (εξαπατωσιν). Present active indicative of the double compound verb εξαπαταω (see 2Th 2:3 ; 1Co 3:18 ). Of the innocent (των ακακων). Old adjective (α privative and κακος), without evil or guile, in N. T. only here and Heb 7:26 (of Christ).
Is come abroad (αφικετο). Second aorist middle indicative of αφικνεομα, old verb, to come from, then to arrive at, only here in N.T. Over you (εφ' υμιν). "Upon you." Simple unto that which is evil (ακεραιους εις το κακον). Old adjective from α privative and κεραννυμ, to mix. Unmixed with evil, unadulterated.
Shall bruise (συντριψε). Future active of συντριβω, old verb, to rub together, to crush, to trample underfoot. Blessed promise of final victory over Satan by "the God of peace." "Shortly" (εν ταχε). As God counts time. Meanwhile patient loyalty from us.
Verses 21-23 form a sort of postscript with greetings from Paul's companions in Corinth. Timothy was with Paul in Macedonia ( 2Co 1:1 ) before he came to Corinth. Lucius may be the one mentioned in Ac 13:1 . Jason was once Paul's host ( Ac 17:5-9 ) in Thessalonica, Sosipater may be the longer form of Sopater of Ac 20:4 . They are all Paul's fellow-countrymen (συγγενεις).
I Tertius (εγω Τερτιος). The amanuensis to whom Paul dictated the letter. See 2Th 3:17 ; 1Co 16:21 ; Col 4:18 .
Gaius my host (Γαιος ο ξενος μου). Perhaps the same Gaius of 1Co 1:14 ( Ac 19:29 ; 20:4 ), but whether the one of 3Jo 1:1 we do not know. Ξενος was a guest friend, and then either a stranger ( Mt 25:35 ) or a host of strangers as here. This Gaius was plainly a man of some means as he was the host of all the church. Erastus ( 2Ti 4:20 ) was "the treasurer of the city" (ο οικονομος της πολεως), one of the outstanding men of Corinth, the "steward" (house-manager) or city manager.
See Lu 12:42 ; 16:1 . He is probably the administrator of the city's property. Quartus (Κουαρτος). Latin name for fourth.
Is not genuine, not in Aleph A B C Coptic.
Verses 25-27 conclude the noble Epistle with the finest of Paul's doxologies. To him that is able (τω δυναμενω). Dative of the articular participle of δυναμα. See similar idiom in Eph 3:20 . To stablish (στηριξα). First aorist active infinitive of στηριζω, to make stable. According to my gospel (κατα το ευαγγελιον μου). Same phrase in 2:16 ; 2Ti 2:8 . Not a book, but Paul's message as here set forth.
The preaching (το κηρυγμα). The proclamation, the heralding. Of Jesus Christ (Ιησου Χριστου). Objective genitive, "about Jesus Christ." Revelation (αποκαλυψιν). "Unveiling." Of the mystery (μυστηριου). Once unknown, but now revealed. Kept in silence (σεσιγημενου). Perfect passive participle of σιγαω, to be silent, state of silence. Through times eternal (χρονοις αιωνιοις).
Associative instrumental case, "along with times eternal" (Robertson, Grammar , p. 527). See 1Co 2:6 , 7 , 10 .
But now is manifested (φανερωθεντος δε νυν). First aorist passive participle of φανεροω, to make plain, genitive case in agreement with μυστηριου. By the scriptures of the prophets (δια γραφων προφητικων). "By prophetic scriptures." Witnessed by the law and the prophets ( 3:21 ). This thread runs all through Romans. According to the command of the eternal God (κατ' επιταγην του αιωνιου θεου).
Paul conceives that God is in charge of the redemptive work and gives his orders ( 1:1-5 ; 10:15 f. ). The same adjective αιωνιος is here applied to God that is used of eternal life and eternal punishment in Mt 25:46 . Unto obedience of faith (εις υπακοην της πιστεως). See 1:5 . Made known unto all the nations (εις παντα τα εθνη γνωρισθεντος). First aorist passive participle of γνωριζω, still the genitive case agreeing with μυστηριου in verse 25 .
To the only wise God (μονω σοφω θεω). Better, "to God alone wise." See 1Ti 1:17 without σοφω. To whom (ω). Some MSS. omit. BY WAY OF INTRODUCTION It would be a hard-boiled critic today who would dare deny the genuineness of I Corinthians. The Dutch wild man, Van Manen, did indeed argue that Paul wrote no epistles if indeed he ever lived. Such intellectual banality is well answered by Whateley's Historic Doubts about Napolean Bonaparte which was so cleverly done that some readers were actually convinced that no such man ever existed, but is the product of myth and legend.
Even Baur was compelled to acknowledge the genuineness of I and II Corinthians, Galatians and Romans (the Big Four of Pauline criticism). It is a waste of time now to prove what all admit to be true. Paul of Tarsus, the Apostle to the Gentiles, wrote I Corinthians. We know where Paul was when he wrote the letter for he tells us in 1Co 16:8 : "But I will tarry at Ephesus until Pentecost."
That was, indeed, his plan, but the uproar in Ephesus at the hands of Demetrius caused his departure sooner than he expected ( Ac 18:21-20:1 ; 2Co 2:12 f. ). But he is in Ephesus when he writes. We know also the time of the year when he writes, in the spring before pentecost. Unfortunately we do not know the precise year, though it was at the close of his stay of three years (in round numbers) at Ephesus ( Ac 20:31 ).
Like all the years in Paul's ministry we have to allow a sliding scale in relation to his other engagements. One may guess the early spring of A. D. 54 or 55. The occasion of the Epistle is made plain by numerous allusions personal and otherwise. Paul had arrived in Ephesus from Antioch shortly after the departure of Apollos for Corinth with letters of commendation from Priscilla and Aquila ( Ac 18:28-19:1 ).
It is not clear how long Apollos remained in Corinth, but he is back in Ephesus when Paul writes the letter and he has declined Paul's request to go back to Corinth ( 1Co 16:12 ). Some of the household of Chloe had heard or come from Corinth with full details of the factions in the church over Apollos and Paul, clearly the reason why Apollos left ( 1Co 1:10-12 ).
Even Cephas nominally was drawn into it, though there is no evidence that Peter himself had come to Corinth. Paul had sent Timothy over to Corinth to put an end to the factions ( 1Co 4:17 ), though he was uneasy over the outcome ( 1Co 16:10 f. ). This disturbance was enough of itself to call forth a letter from Paul. But it was by no means the whole story. Paul had already written a letter, now lost to us, concerning a peculiarly disgusting case of incest in the membership ( 1Co 5:9 ).
They were having lawsuits with one another before heathen judges. Members of the church had written Paul a letter about marriage whether any or all should marry ( 1Co 7:1 ). They were troubled also whether it was right to eat meat that had been offered to idols in the heathen temples ( 1Co 8:1 ). Spiritual gifts of an unusual nature were manifested in Corinth and these were the occasion of a deal of trouble ( 1Co 12:1 ).
The doctrine of the resurrection gave much trouble in Corinth ( 1Co 15:12 ). Paul was interested in the collection for the poor saints in Jerusalem ( 1Co 16:1 ) and in their share in it. The church in Corinth had sent a committee (Stephanas, Fortunatus, Achaicus) to Paul in Ephesus. He hopes to come himself after passing through Macedonia ( 1Co 16:5 f. ). It is possible that he had made a short visit before this letter ( 2Co 13:1 ), though not certain as he may have intended to go one time without going as he certainly once changed his plans on the subject ( 2Co 1:15-22 ).
Whether Titus took the letter on his visit or it was sent on after the return of Timothy is not perfectly clear. Probably Timothy returned to Ephesus from Corinth shortly after the epistle was sent on, possibly by the committee who returned to Corinth ( 1Co 16:17 ), for Timothy and Erastus were sent on from Ephesus to Macedonia before the outbreak at the hands of Demetrius ( Ac 19:22 ).
Apparently Timothy had not fully succeeded in reconciling the factions in Corinth for Paul dispatched Titus who was to meet him at Troas as he went on to Macedonia. Paul's hurried departure from Ephesus ( Ac 20:1 ) took him to Troas before Titus arrived and Paul's impatience there brought him to Macedonia where he did meet Titus on his return from Corinth ( 2Co 2:12 f.
). It is clear therefore that Paul wrote what we call I Corinthians in a disturbed state of mind. He had founded the church there, had spent two years there ( Ac 18 ), and took pardonable pride in his work there as a wise architect ( 1Co 3:10 ) for he had built the church on Christ as the foundation. He was anxious that his work should abide. It is plain that the disturbances in the church in Corinth were fomented from without by the Judaizers whom Paul had defeated at the Jerusalem Conference ( Ac 15:1-35 ; Ga 2:1-10 ).
They were overwhelmed there, but renewed their attacks in Antioch ( Ga 2:11-21 ). Henceforth throughout the second mission tour they are a disturbing element in Galatia, in Corinth, in Jerusalem. While Paul is winning the Gentiles in the Roman Empire to Christ, these Judaizers are trying to win Paul's converts to Judaism. Nowhere do we see the conflict at so white a heat as in Corinth.
Paul finally will expose them with withering sarcasm ( 2Co 10-13 ) as Jesus did the Pharisees in Mt 23 on that last day in the temple. Factional strife, immorality, perverted ideas about marriage, spiritual gifts, and the resurrection, these complicated problems are a vivid picture of church life in our cities today. The discussion of them shows Paul's manysidedness and also the powerful grasp that he has upon the realities of the gospel.
Questions of casuistry are faced fairly and serious ethical issues are met squarely. But along with the treatment of these vexed matters Paul sings the noblest song of the ages on love (chapter 1Co 13 ) and writes the classic discussion on the resurrection (chapter 1Co 15 ). If one knows clearly and fully the Corinthian Epistles and Paul's dealings with Corinth, he has an understanding of a large section of his life and ministry.
No church caused him more anxiety than did Corinth ( 2Co 11:28 ). Some good commentaries on I Corinthians are the following: On the Greek Bachmann in the Zahn Kommentar , Edwards, Ellicott, Findlay (Expositor's Greek Testament), Godet, Goudge, Lietzmann ( Handbuch zum N. T. ), Lightfoot (chs. 1-7), Parry, Robertson and Plummer ( Int. Crit. ), Stanley, J. Weiss ( Meyer Kommentar ); on the English Dods ( Exp.
Bible ), McFadyen, Parry, Ramsay, Rendall, F. W. Robertson, Walker ( Reader's Comm. ).